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ADHD

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ADHD (Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder) is a lifelong neurodevelopmental condition that affects how your brain regulates attention, manages executive functions, and processes rewards and motivation.

At its core, ADHD involves differences in executive function, the mental processes that help you plan, focus attention, remember instructions, and manage multiple tasks.56 These differences affect how your brain regulates where attention goes, how you initiate and complete tasks, how you manage time and emotions, and how you respond to immediate versus delayed rewards.78

ADHD is highly heritable, with genetics accounting for approximately 74% of the variance in ADHD symptoms.13 While environmental and cultural factors can influence behaviour and development, research confirms that ADHD is primarily a biologically-based condition.245

D as in Disclaimer

In many medical acronyms, the D stands for Disorder, Deficit or Dysfunction. Please note that even when we refer to the condition using the medical name, we don’t subscribe to the deficit-focused view of neurodivergence.

We encourage you to describe your condition as it feels most accurate to you, whether it’s Difference, Difficulty, Disability, or something else.

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Recognising ADHD: Common Signs and Symptoms

If you’re wondering whether you might have ADHD, you’re likely looking for what clinicians call “symptoms”, which are the observable signs and experiences that indicate ADHD. We prefer to think of these as traits or characteristics, or presentations, but we’ll use the clinical language here because that’s what’s used in assessment and diagnosis.

ADHD is diagnosed based on patterns of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that are

  • persistent (consistently present for at least six months, not temporary),
  • pervasive across multiple settings (occurs across different areas in life, eg, not just in school),
  • and cause significant difficulty in daily functioning.

ADHD shows up in three main presentations (previously called subtypes):

  1. predominantly inattentive,
  2. predominantly hyperactive-impulsive,
  3. and combined.

These aren’t fixed categories: your presentation can shift over time and across different contexts.13

Inattentive Traits

This presentation involves challenges with regulating where your attention goes and sustaining it on tasks that don’t provide enough stimulation. Tasks can feel hazy and overwhelming, making it difficult to know where to start. There’s often a gap between knowing what to do and being able to execute it. You might lose track of thoughts mid-task, struggle with organisation, or experience what appears to be forgetfulness but is actually a working memory challenge.

Inattentive presentation is more common in women and girls and is often overlooked because it’s less disruptive than hyperactive presentations.1112

For a comprehensive look at what this presentation feels like and how it shows up, see our Inattentive Type ADHD entry.

Hyperactive-Impulsive Traits

This presentation involves a jittery, buzzy internal state that creates an urgent need for movement or stimulation. Hyperactivity can show up as physical restlessness—fidgeting, pacing, difficulty sitting still—or, particularly in women, as internal hyperactivity with racing thoughts, constant mental activity, and difficulty relaxing. The energy can’t be turned off at will, and trying to suppress it externally often redirects it internally.

Impulsivity shows up as a shortened pause between impulse and action: a bright flash that leads immediately to behaviour before you can fully consider it.

This can manifest as blurting out remarks, making quick decisions without considering consequences, or expressing strong emotions immediately.

For detailed explorations of these experiences, see our Hyperactivity and Impulsivity entries.

Combined

This presentation includes significant symptoms from both inattentive and hyperactive-impulsive categories.

Around 50-70% of ADHDers experience this combined presentation16, though the balance between inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity can shift depending on context, age, and life circumstances.

What About Assessment?

If you recognise yourself in these descriptions, you might be considering assessment. ADHD assessment typically involves:

  • Clinical interview about current symptoms and childhood history
  • Questionnaires and rating scales (like the ASRS for adults)
  • Information from multiple sources when possible (family members, partners, old school reports)
  • Ruling out other conditions that might explain the symptoms

It’s important to find a clinician who understands ADHD in adults and is familiar with how it presents in women, as many assessment tools were developed based on research with hyperactive boys and may not capture the full picture of adult or female presentation.

How ADHD Shows Up

Interest-Based Attention

One of the most misunderstood aspects of ADHD is that there isn’t actually an attention deficit—there’s a difference in how attention is regulated. The ADHD brain responds strongly to interest, novelty, challenge, and urgency, but struggles to generate motivation for tasks that are important but not immediately engaging.78 This is why you can hyperfocus for hours on something fascinating while struggling to start a simple but boring task. It has nothing to do with willpower or how responsible or caring you are as a person. It is the result of how your brain processes reward and motivation.

Common Experiences

  • Time perception differences: Time can feel slippery and abstract, making it difficult to estimate how long tasks will take or to feel the passage of time in a concrete way, see time blindness.
  • Emotional intensity: Emotions can feel more immediate and intense, with less buffer between feeling and expression.
  • Executive function challenges: Difficulty with task initiation, planning, organisation, working memory, and follow-through.
  • Context-dependency: ADHD symptoms aren’t constant: they vary based on interest level, stimulation, stress, fatigue, hormone levels and environmental factors.

ADHD Across the Lifespan

ADHD is lifelong, but how it shows up changes over time. While hyperactivity symptoms tend to decrease with age, inattention and executive function challenges often persist into adulthood, though they may manifest differently than they did in childhood.910

Many adults develop sophisticated coping strategies that can mask their ADHD, leading to late diagnosis, sometimes not until their 30s, 40s, or beyond, often when their coping strategies stop working.

ADHD symptoms in women

ADHD presents differently across genders, which has led to significant under-recognition, particularly in women and girls, and racialised groups.

Women and girls with ADHD are frequently overlooked or misdiagnosed because their symptoms often present differently than the stereotypical (white, male-centred) presentation, which is less disruptive and therefore less likely to be noticed.1112

Some other reasons for the delayed recognition of ADHD in women

  • Women are more likely to have predominantly inattentive presentation: Less visible hyperactivity, more internal restlessness, daydreaming, and difficulty with organisation and follow-through.18 21 19
  • Women have more internalising symptoms: Anxiety, depression, low self-esteem, and perfectionism that can mask the underlying ADHD. 11 18
  • Women are “better” at masking/compensation: women often develop strategies to hide struggles, which can delay diagnosis, and also lead to exhaustion and burnout. 25 12 11
  • Instead of the expected hyperactive presentation, women often experience emotional dysregulation: Intense emotions, difficulty managing emotional responses, and sensitivity to rejection. 24 23 18
  • Hormonal impacts: ADHD symptoms can fluctuate with the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, and menopause. 22 26 27
  • Misdiagnosis: Frequently diagnosed with anxiety or depression first, with ADHD only recognised later. 20 11 18
  • Later diagnosis: Women are diagnosed an average of five years later than men, often not until adulthood when coping strategies break down under increased demands1120 19

Common Misconceptions about ADHD

There are many myths about ADHD that can prevent people from recognising it in themselves or getting appropriate support.

  • “People with ADHD are always hyperactive” → Not true. Many people with ADHD, especially women and adults, have the predominantly inattentive presentation. [Learn more]
  • “ADHD means you can’t pay attention to anything” → Not true. ADHD involves difficulty regulating attention, not a lack of it. People with ADHD can hyperfocus intensely on engaging tasks. [Learn more]
  • “ADHD only affects boys” → Not true. ADHD affects all genders, but it’s often missed in girls and women due to different presentation patterns. [Learn more]
  • “ADHD is caused by trauma” → Not true. ADHD is primarily genetic and neurological, though trauma can affect symptoms and presentation. [Learn more]
  • “People grow out of ADHD” → Not true. ADHD is lifelong, though symptoms and presentation change over time. [Learn more]

The names of ADHD

ADHD has an infamous misnomer, as even the current descriptor is not accurate to the condition.

  1. There is no attention deficit. ADHD involves interest-based attention regulation. People with ADHD have plenty of attention when a task is stimulating enough (just think of hyperfocus), but struggle to direct and sustain attention on tasks that don’t provide immediate engagement or reward.78
  2. Hyperactivity is only one of the presentations, and not every person with ADHD experiences hyperactive traits. Many people, especially women and adults, have the predominantly inattentive presentation.
  3. Finally, ADHD is not a disorder but a neurological difference. The scientific consensus moves more and more toward neurovariety. Neurovariety means that neurodivergent conditions are not illnesses that need to be cured, but naturally existing variations of the human brain.
ADHD is not just about attention or hyperactivity, and it’s neither a deficit nor a disorder, but otherwise the name is perfect. /s

How the names and understanding of ADHD evolved

  • 1798 — Mental restlessness
  • 1930s — Minimal brain damage
  • 1960s — Minimal brain dysfunction
  • 1968 — Hyperkinetic reaction of childhood
  • 1980 — Attention-deficit disorder (ADD). This is still a version that some people use, even though it’s been officially changed since 1987.
  • 1987 — Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (1987)
  • 1994 — ADHD with 3 subtypes: hyperactive-impulsive, inattentive and a combined subtype
  • 2013 — ADHD with 3 symptom presentations, with the understanding that an individual can shift through the three presentations and the symptoms can present differently at different stages of their life. 13

Living with ADHD

Understanding ADHD as a neurological difference rather than a character flaw or lack of willpower can be transformative and incredibly freeing. Many late-identified adults describe finally getting an ADHD diagnosis as a moment of profound relief—suddenly, years of struggling make sense. You weren’t lazy, unmotivated, or not trying hard enough. Your brain was working differently, and you were doing your best without understanding why certain things felt so much harder for you than for others.

ADHD comes with genuine challenges, but also with strengths — it is not a superpower, but also not entirely a disability. The same brain that struggles with boring tasks can generate creative solutions, think laterally, adapt quickly to change, and hyperfocus with remarkable intensity on areas of passion. The same impulsivity that can lead to regrettable moments can also manifest as spontaneity, quick thinking, and a willingness to take risks that lead to innovation.

Support for ADHD can include

  • medication, which addresses underlying dopamine regulation and wider hormone & neurotransmitter systems,
  • behavioural strategies — preferably ones that support you and do not encourage masking,
  • environmental modifications, which include accommodations like flexible work hours, noise-cancelling headphones, etc.
  • therapy, mainly to treat the unavoidable trauma that comes with navigating the world that was not designed with us in mind, and help with unlearning harmful coping mechanisms that we picked up during the unidentified decades
  • coaching to give you neuroaffirming tools and develop new skills with the added understanding of your neurodivergent traits,
  • and community for shared sense-making and lived-experience support.

What works varies from person to person, and finding the right combination often takes time and experimentation. The goal isn’t to eliminate ADHD or become neurotypical, especially because this would be impossible. But if you understand how your brain works and develop strategies that work with it rather than against it, a lot of friction and frustration can be removed from your daily life.

Co-occurring conditions with ADHD

Many other conditions, when compared to non-ADHD populations, are more prevalent in people with ADHD.

  • Obstructive sleep apnea: 6x more present when ADHD is.
  • 57.8% have post-partum depression 17, compared to 15-19% of the non-ADHD population
  • 45% also have PMDD 17, compared to 28.7% of the non-ADHD population
  • Women with PCOS have higher rates of ADHD symptoms, and children born to mothers with PCOS are 42–43% more likely to develop ADHD. (Which makes sense, since ADHD is hereditary, and if it co-occurs with PCOS, the mother with PCOS is also more likely to be an ADHDer — even if unidentified –, therefore has a bigger chance of passing down her ADHD to the child.) 32
  • Asthma is 1.5x more likely to be present when ADHD is 28
  • Children with ADHD may be 14% more likely to develop allergies than those without the condition30
  • People with myopia (nearsightedness) have 30% higher ADHD rate, and people with astigmatism and hyperopia (farsightedness) have had over 50% higher ADHD rate. 31 Which means if you wear glasses, on average, you have a 40% higher rate of also being an ADHDer.

Also, ADHD co-occurs with other neurodevelopmental conditions

  • mainly Autism, with an overlap of 40-60% in children29, see AuDHD
  • 30-40% of ADHD-ers also have dyslexia – Boada et al (2012)

Articles about ADHD

Key terms to know

ADHD paralysis

focus pain stress time

ADHD paralysis is a form of executive dysfunction.

It refers to the difficulty in initiating, continuing, or completing tasks, even when the person understands the urgency and importance, and also has the ability to do the task. ADHD paralysis can be triggered by various factors, including overwhelm, anxiety, or the perceived complexity of a task.

Read moreADHD paralysis

body doubling

focus learning motivation support

Body doubling means doing a task or errand with someone else or in the presence of someone else so it’s easier to start or follow through.

Their supportive presence helps create a safe, anchoring environment that makes it easier to start and follow through with tasks — without pressure or judgment.

It is one of the strategies for managing focus and creating a flow for work, even if you feel lost and overwhelmed by executive dysfunction.

Read morebody doubling

context switching

energy focus memory

Context switching refers to the cognitive process of shifting attention between different tasks or mental states. It involves disengaging from one task and engaging in another, requiring the brain to change its focus, rules, and objectives.

This process can be mentally taxing due to the cognitive load involved in stopping one task and starting another, shifting gears to focus on the new task, and getting accustomed to the new situation with all its stimuli. Frequent context switching and …

Read morecontext switching

decompressing

self-care self-regulation sensory support

Decompressing refers to engaging in activities or behaviours that allow a person to relax, unwind, and alleviate stress or sensory overload.

This term is particularly significant in the neurodivergent community as we often experience heightened sensitivity to environmental stimuli, leading to increased stress and anxiety levels.

Making sure to have time to decompress after especially taxing events is an essential part of self-care.

Read moredecompressing

demand avoidance

communication energy focus motivation stress

Demand avoidance means appearing opposed to doing something when it’s perceived as a demand, especially from an authority figure – even if you actually want to do the thing. While it may look like defiance or stubbornness to others, it’s actually an involuntary self-preservation response triggered by threats to autonomy. This response happens automatically, not as a conscious decision to be difficult.

Read moredemand avoidance

hyperfocus

focus interests

Hyperfocus is a cognitive state characterized by an intense concentration and absorption in a particular task or activity to the point of excluding or neglecting other stimuli or responsibilities.

Read morehyperfocus

intolerance of uncertainty

communication self-regulation stress support

Intolerance of uncertainty (IU) describes the degree to which a nervous system needs predictability in order to function — not as a preference, but as a genuine operational requirement. When outcomes are unknown or plans unconfirmed, a high-IU nervous system tends to generate contingencies: running through variables, gathering information in advance, and finding it difficult to settle until enough is known. For many autistic and ADHD adults, IU runs at a higher baseline than in the …

Read moreintolerance of uncertainty

night terrors

energy periods sensory sleep

Night terrors are episodes of intense fear during sleep that involve screaming, physical movement, and autonomic arousal (racing heart, rapid breathing, sweating). Unlike nightmares, they occur during non-REM sleep with no memory of the event afterwards.

Night terrors affect both children and adults, with higher prevalence in neurodivergent populations, particularly those with ADHD.

They’re triggered by sleep disruption, stress, hormonal changes, and sometimes medication, reflecting both …

Read morenight terrors

object constancy

communication focus memory relationships

Object constancy is the notion that you remain connected and aware of items or people even when they are not visible or physically around. Difficulties in object constancy lead to the “out of sight, out of mind” experience, which is very common with ADHD folk. Not to be confused with object permanence, which is a developmental stage in babies, and relates to them believing things genuinely stop existing when not in sight.

Read moreobject constancy

special interests

communication interests joy self-regulation sensory

Special interests are deeply focused areas of engagement that autistic people experience with a level of emotional investment, sustained attention, and joy that goes well beyond typical hobbies. Clinically categorised under restricted repetitive behaviours, special interests are one of the defining characteristics of autism — and for most autistic adults, they are a primary source of motivation, regulation, identity, and connection. Between 75% and 95% of autistic people have at least one …

Read morespecial interests

stimming

eating focus movement self-care self-regulation sensory sound touch vision

Stimming (self-stimulatory behaviour) tends to be more intense, deliberate, and repetitive. It can include hand flapping, rocking, making repetitive sounds, spinning, examining textures intensely, or listening to the same song on repeat for hours. Stimming is historically associated with autism and serves primarily as emotional and sensory regulation—a way to manage overwhelming feelings, process sensory input, express joy or excitement, or meet a physiological need for specific sensory …

Read morestimming

transitions

energy sensory stress

Transitioning, in the context of neurodiversity, refers to the process of moving from one state, activity, or place to another. It involves a shift in attention, focus, and cognitive resources.

For neurodivergent individuals, it may require additional time, support, and strategies to manage effectively.

Transitioning can encompass a wide range of changes, from minor daily shifts like moving from one task to another, to major life changes such as transitioning from school to work or from …

Read moretransitions

waiting mode

focus motivation time

Waiting mode is a psychological state characterized by heightened anticipation or anxiety while awaiting a specific outcome or event.

In the neurodivergent, especially ADHD community it usually means the period before an event that needs focus or attention spent in a sort of paralysing waiting mode, not being able to do little else until the event is over.

Read morewaiting mode

working memory

focus memory

Working memory is one of the executive functions. It is our mental scratchpad, where we temporarily hold and play with info to help with tasks like problem-solving and learning. It’s key for everyday stuff but has limited space, so juggling too much can be tough, especially for people with ADHD, who have an even more limited space.

Read moreworking memory

ADHD questions, concerns and wonderings — answered

energy focus motivation self-regulation support

“Why do I do better with a routine?”

Because routine is architecture you can rely on when everything else is wobbly or up in the air.

When you do the same things in the same order, your brain doesn’t have to build the day from scratch. The route is known, the sequence is mapped, all the decisions have already been made, and you are good to go. This frees up precious cognitive resources for the things that actually need your attention.

Read more“Why do I do better with a routine?”
energy movement self-regulation

“Is fidgeting and stimming the same thing?”

Fidgeting is similar to stimming, but they serve different purposes. While stimming tends to function as emotional regulation (a way to manage overwhelming feelings or sensory input), fidgeting more often serves focus regulation and energy discharge. The movements might look the same from the outside, but the internal experience and function can be quite different.

Read more“Is fidgeting and stimming the same thing?”
diagnosis identity self-image support

“I don’t want to become my label and use my neurodivergence as an excuse”

If you’re worried about this, you’re already not that person. Asking for accommodations (like quiet spaces, reminders, breaks) is self-care and self-advocacy. The difference between advocating for your needs and being manipulative comes down to respect: are you communicating your limits while taking responsibility, or are you demanding others tolerate harmful behaviour?

Read more“I don’t want to become my label and use my neurodivergence as an excuse”
coping strategies diagnosis identity self-confidence

“Why get an ADHD / autism diagnosis just to get a label?”

Whether you like it or not, you already have labels — lazy, scatterbrain, weird, messy — given to you by others. You have probably internalised many of them over the decades, too. The difference with a diagnosis is that this label is one you choose for yourself based on understanding, and not a mean, untrue one imposed on you out of frustration or judgment.

Read more“Why get an ADHD / autism diagnosis just to get a label?”
coping strategies diagnosis identity self-image support

“What can a neurodivergent diagnosis give me if I got this far on my own?”

You’ve developed coping strategies and made it work so far. Hooray! But what’s working today might not work tomorrow — especially when life throws big changes at you like hormonal shifts, job changes, or major life transitions. A diagnosis can give you a baseline understanding of your brain so you can adapt when things change, rather than having to reverse-engineer everything from scratch during a crisis.

Read more“What can a neurodivergent diagnosis give me if I got this far on my own?”
decisions self-regulation

How can I recognize when I’m about to make an impulsive decision?

Impulsive decisions can make us feel powerless. Even if we ignore the possible negative consequences of the decisions, simply feeling that we did something we couldn’t notice “in time” or catch while it was happening can be very vulnerable and disempowering. After the fact, it sometimes feels obvious – ‘duh, this was silly; I made …

Read moreHow can I recognize when I’m about to make an impulsive decision?
focus motivation

What’s the difference between being ‘lazy’ and experiencing executive dysfunction?

Laziness is not simply “not doing” something. A lazy person could do the thing, would have the energy to do so, but chooses not to. And they don’t care about it at all. Lazy people are okay with the task not being done. Their inner monologue isn’t even mentioning the task. Lazy people don’t think …

Read moreWhat’s the difference between being ‘lazy’ and experiencing executive dysfunction?

Research on ADHD

  • de la Peña, I. C., Pan, M. C., Thai, C. G., & Alisso, T. (2020). Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Predominantly Inattentive Subtype/Presentation: Research Progress and Translational Studies. Brain sciences, 10(5), 292. View source ↗ Discussed in: “Does ADHD mean you’re always hyperactive?”
  • Arnsten, A. Stimulants: Therapeutic Actions in ADHD. Neuropsychopharmacol 31, 2376–2383 (2006). View source ↗ Discussed in: “Does ADHD mean you’re always hyperactive?”
  • Biederman, J., Mick, E., & Faraone, S. V. (2000). Age-dependent decline of symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: impact of remission definition and symptom type. The American journal of psychiatry, 157(5), 816–818. View source ↗ Discussed in: “Does ADHD mean you’re always hyperactive?”
  • Skogli, E. W., Teicher, M. H., Andersen, P. N., Hovik, K. T., & Øie, M. (2013). ADHD in girls and boys--gender differences in co-existing symptoms and executive function measures. BMC Psychiatry, 13, 298. View source ↗ Discussed in: “Doesn’t ADHD mostly affect boys?”
  • Biederman, J., Kwon, A., Aleardi, M., Chouinard, V. A., Marino, T., Cole, H., Mick, E., & Faraone, S. V. (2005). Absence of gender effects on attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: findings in nonreferred subjects. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 162(6), 1083–1089. View source ↗ Discussed in: “Doesn’t ADHD mostly affect boys?”
  • Martin, J. (2024). Why are females less likely to be diagnosed with ADHD in childhood than males? The Lancet Psychiatry, 11(4), 303–310. View source ↗ Discussed in: “Doesn’t ADHD mostly affect boys?”
  • Olsson, Å. (2023). Teachers’ gendered perceptions of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder – a literature review. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 38(3), 303–316. View source ↗ Discussed in: “Doesn’t ADHD mostly affect boys?”
  • Mowlem, F., Agnew-Blais, J., Taylor, E., & Asherson, P. (2019). Do different factors influence whether girls versus boys meet ADHD diagnostic criteria? Sex differences among children with high ADHD symptoms. Psychiatry Research, 272, 765–773. View source ↗ Discussed in: “Doesn’t ADHD mostly affect boys?”
  • Young, S., Adamo, N., Ásgeirsdóttir, B. B., et al. (2020). Females with ADHD: An expert consensus statement taking a lifespan approach providing guidance for the identification and treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in girls and women. BMC Psychiatry, 20(1), 404. View source ↗ Discussed in: “Doesn’t ADHD mostly affect boys?”
  • Moldavsky, M., Groenewald, C., Owen, V., & Sayal, K. (2013). Teachers' recognition of children with ADHD: role of subtype and gender. Child and adolescent mental health, 18(1), 18–23. View source ↗ Discussed in: “Doesn’t ADHD mostly affect boys?”
  • Grskovic, Janice & Zentall, Sydney. (2010). Understanding ADHD in girls: Identification and social characteristics. International journal of special education. 25. 171-184. View source ↗ Discussed in: “Doesn’t ADHD mostly affect boys?”
  • Quinn, P. O., & Madhoo, M. (2014). A review of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in women and girls: uncovering this hidden diagnosis. The Primary Care Companion for CNS Disorders, 16(3), PCC.13r01596. View source ↗ Discussed in: “Doesn’t ADHD mostly affect boys?”
  • Madsen, K. B., Ravn, M. H., Arnfred, J., Olsen, J., Rask, C. U., & Obel, C. (2018). Characteristics of undiagnosed children with parent-reported ADHD behaviour. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 27(2), 149–158. View source ↗ Discussed in: “Doesn’t ADHD mostly affect boys?”
  • Anderson, K. N., Ailes, E. C., Danielson, M., Lind, J. N., Farr, S. L., Broussard, C. S., & Tinker, S. C. (2018). Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder medication prescription claims among privately insured women aged 15-44 years - United States, 2003-2015. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 67(2), 66–70. View source ↗ Discussed in: “Doesn’t ADHD mostly affect boys?”
  • Siddiqui, U., Conover, M. M., Voss, E. A., Kern, D. M., Litvak, M., & Antunes, J. (2024). Sex Differences in Diagnosis and Treatment Timing of Comorbid Depression/Anxiety and Disease Subtypes in Patients With ADHD: A Database Study. Journal of attention disorders, 28(10), 1347–1356. View source ↗ Discussed in: “Doesn’t ADHD mostly affect boys?”
  • Sibley, M. H., Arnold, L. E., Swanson, J. M., Hechtman, L. T., Kennedy, T. M., Owens, E., Molina, B. S. G., Jensen, P. S., Hinshaw, S. P., Roy, A., Chronis-Tuscano, A., Newcorn, J. H., Rohde, L. A., & MTA Cooperative Group (2022). Variable patterns of remission from ADHD in the multimodal treatment study of ADHD. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 179(2), 142–151. View source ↗ Discussed in: “Don’t people grow out of ADHD?”
  • Instanes, J. T., Klungsøyr, K., Halmøy, A., Fasmer, O. B., & Haavik, J. (2018). Adult ADHD and comorbid somatic disease: A systematic literature review. Journal of Attention Disorders, 22(3), 203-228. View source ↗ Discussed in: “Don’t people grow out of ADHD?”
  • Eakin, L., Minde, K., Hechtman, L., Ochs, E., Krane, E., Bouffard, R., Greenfield, B., & Looper, K. (2004). The marital and family functioning of adults with ADHD and their spouses. Journal of Attention Disorders, 8(1), 1-10. View source ↗ Discussed in: “Don’t people grow out of ADHD?”
  • Turgay, A., Goodman, D. W., Asherson, P., Lasser, R. A., Babcock, T. F., Pucci, M. L., Barkley, R., & ADHD Transition Phase Model Working Group (2012). Lifespan persistence of ADHD: the life transition model and its application. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 73(2), 192–201. View source ↗ Discussed in: “Don’t people grow out of ADHD?”
  • Martin, J. (2024). Why are females less likely to be diagnosed with ADHD in childhood than males? The Lancet Psychiatry, 11(4), 303–310. View source ↗ Discussed in: “Don’t people grow out of ADHD?”
  • Grimm, O., Kranz, T. M., & Reif, A. (2020). Genetics of ADHD: What Should the Clinician Know?. Current psychiatry reports, 22(4), 18. View source ↗ Discussed in: “Is ADHD caused by trauma?”
  • Claudia Lugo-Candelas et al. (2020): ADHD and risk for subsequent adverse childhood experiences: understanding the cycle of adversity View source ↗ Discussed in: “Is ADHD caused by trauma?”
  • Barkley, R. (2023, November 14). Why Dr Gabor Mate' is worse than wrong about ADHD [Video]. YouTube. View source ↗ Discussed in: “Is ADHD caused by trauma?”
  • Shoham, R., Sonuga-Barke, E. J., Aloni, H., Yaniv, I., & Pollak, Y. (2016). ADHD-associated risk taking is linked to exaggerated views of the benefits of positive outcomes. Scientific reports, 6, 34833. View source ↗ Discussed in: “Is ADHD caused by trauma?”
  • Thapar, A., Cooper, M., Eyre, O., & Langley, K. (2013). What have we learnt about the causes of ADHD?. Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines, 54(1), 3–16. h View source ↗ Discussed in: “Is ADHD caused by trauma?”
  • Thapar A. (2018). Discoveries on the Genetics of ADHD in the 21st Century: New Findings and Their Implications. The American journal of psychiatry, 175(10), 943–950. View source ↗ Discussed in: “Is ADHD caused by trauma?”
  • Barkley R. A. (1997). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, self-regulation, and time: toward a more comprehensive theory. Journal of developmental and behavioral pediatrics : JDBP, 18(4), 271–279. View source ↗ Discussed in: “Is ADHD just about not being able to pay attention?”
  • Shiels, K., & Hawk, L. W., Jr (2010). Self-regulation in ADHD: the role of error processing. Clinical psychology review, 30(8), 951–961. View source ↗ Discussed in: “Is ADHD just about not being able to pay attention?”
  • Groves, N. B., Wells, E. L., Soto, E. F., Marsh, C. L., Jaisle, E. M., Harvey, T. K., & Kofler, M. J. (2022). Executive Functioning and Emotion Regulation in Children with and without ADHD. Research on child and adolescent psychopathology, 50(6), 721–735. View source ↗ Discussed in: “Is ADHD just about not being able to pay attention?”
  • Stimming and Fidgeting Helps Some People with ADHD to Pay Attention View source ↗ Discussed in: “Why do people fidget when they are hyperactive?”
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  • A comprehensive analysis of 47 studies revealing significantly higher prevalence of parasomnias, including night terrors, in autistic children compared to neurotypical peers. Feng, S., Huang, H., Wang, N., Wei, Y., Liu, Y., & Qin, D. (2021). Sleep Disorders in Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder: Insights From Animal Models, Especially Non-human Primate Model. Frontiers in behavioral neuroscience, 15, 673372. View source ↗ Discussed in: night terrors
  • Hvolby A. (2015). Associations of sleep disturbance with ADHD: implications for treatment. Attention deficit and hyperactivity disorders, 7(1), 1–18. View source ↗ Discussed in: night terrors
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  • Symptoms include mood swings, irritability, anxiety, fatigue, physical discomfort, and disruptions to sleep and circadian rhythms, such as altered melatonin secretion. Meth, E., Nôga, D., Dubol, M., Xue, P., Sundström-Poromaa, I., & Benedict, C. (2025). The impact of pharmacotherapy for premenstrual dysphoric disorder on sleep.. Sleep medicine reviews, 80, 102069 . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2025.102069. View source ↗ Discussed in: night terrors
  • Prevalence of hormone-related mood disorder symptoms in women with ADHD Source View source ↗ Discussed in: PMDD
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  • Tamilson, B., Eccles, J. A., & Shaw, S. C. K. (2025). The experiences of autistic adults who were previously diagnosed with borderline or emotionally unstable personality disorder: A phenomenological study. Autism : the international journal of research and practice, 29(2), 504–517. View source ↗ Discussed in: Rejection Sensitivity Dysphoria (RSD)
  • Downey, G., & Feldman, S. I. (1996). Implications of rejection sensitivity for intimate relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(6), 1327–1343. View source ↗ Discussed in: Rejection Sensitivity Dysphoria (RSD)
  • Kross, E., Berman, M. G., Mischel, W., Smith, E. E., & Wager, T. D. (2011). Social rejection shares somatosensory representations with physical pain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(15), 6270–6275. View source ↗ Discussed in: Rejection Sensitivity Dysphoria (RSD)
  • Eisenberger, N. I., Lieberman, M. D., & Williams, K. D. (2003). Does rejection hurt? An fMRI study of social exclusion. Science, 302(5643), 290–292. View source ↗ Discussed in: Rejection Sensitivity Dysphoria (RSD)
  • Long, R. (2024). Access Points: Understanding Special Interests Through Autistic Narratives. Autism in Adulthood, 7, 100–111. View source ↗ Discussed in: special interests
  • Grove, R., Hoekstra, R.A., Wierda, M., & Begeer, S. (2018). Special interests and subjective wellbeing in autistic adults. Autism Research, 11. View source ↗ Discussed in: special interests
  • Bross, L., Huffman, J., & Hagiwara, M. (2022). Examining the special interest areas of autistic adults with a focus on their employment and mental health outcomes. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 57, 289–305. View source ↗ Discussed in: special interests
  • Murray, D., Lesser, M., & Lawson, W. (2005). Attention, monotropism and the diagnostic criteria for autism. Autism, 9(2), 139–156. View source ↗ Discussed in: special interests
  • Clements, C.C., Zoltowski, A.R., Yankowitz, L.D., Yerys, B.E., Schultz, R.T., & Herrington, J.D. (2018). Evaluation of the Social Motivation Hypothesis of Autism: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry, 75(8), 797–808. View source ↗ Discussed in: special interests
  • Kohls, G., Schulte-Rüther, M., Nehrkorn, B., Müller, K., Fink, G.R., Kamp-Becker, I., Herpertz-Dahlmann, B., Schultz, R.T., & Konrad, K. (2013). Reward system dysfunction in autism spectrum disorders. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 8(5), 565–572. View source ↗ Discussed in: special interests
  • Caldwell-Harris, C., & Jordan, C. (2013). Systemizing and special interests: Characterizing the continuum from neurotypical to autism spectrum disorder. Learning and Individual Differences, 29, 98–105. View source ↗ Discussed in: special interests
  • Edwards, H., Wright, S., Sargeant, C., Cortese, S., & Wood-Downie, H. (2023). Research Review: A systematic review and meta-analysis of sex differences in narrow constructs of restricted and repetitive behaviours and interests in autistic children, adolescents, and adults. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. View source ↗ Discussed in: special interests
  • Putnam, O.C., Swisher, M., McFayden, T., Chan, D., & Harrop, C. (2025). The Role of Gender and Strong Interests in Self-Reported Camouflaging of Autistic Adults. Neurodiversity, 3. View source ↗ Discussed in: special interests
  • Evans, J.A., Krumrei-Mancuso, E.J., & Rouse, S.V. (2023). What You Are Hiding Could Be Hurting You: Autistic Masking in Relation to Mental Health, Interpersonal Trauma, Authenticity, and Self-Esteem. Autism in Adulthood, 6, 229–240. View source ↗ Discussed in: special interests
  • Harrop, C., Amsbary, J., Towner-Wright, S., Reichow, B., & Boyd, B.A. (2019). That's what I like: The use of circumscribed interests within interventions for individuals with autism spectrum disorder. A systematic review. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders. View source ↗ Discussed in: special interests
  • Pathophysiology of tics and Tourette syndrome A. Berardelli, et. al. (2003) View source ↗ Discussed in: stimming
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  • Livia Farkas is an adult education specialist with a joy-centred approach and a sharp sense for simplifying complex ideas using silly visual metaphors.

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